A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that in most countries refers to a class of degrees which qualify the holder to teach in a specific field.
In some countries, the highest degree in a given field is referred to as a terminal degree, although this is by no means universal (the phrase is not in general use in the UK, for example), practice varies from country to country, and a distinction is sometimes made between terminal professional degrees and terminal research degrees (such as the J.S.D., or S.J.D. in law).[1]
The term doctorate comes from the Latin docere, meaning "to teach."
The "licentiate" degree shortened from the full Latin title licentia docendi, means "teaching licence".[2]
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The doctorate (Latin: doceo, I teach) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach (Latin: licentia docendi) at a medieval university.[3] Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles, church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible.[3] The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the church which required the applicant to pass a test, to take oath of allegiance and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic.[4] This right remained a bone of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the pope to the University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubiquie docendi).[4] However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (Baccalaureus), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching.[4]
At the university, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts," seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree. A hypothesis by George Makdisi that the doctorate has its origins in the Islamic Ijazah, a 180 degree turnaround to an earlier view of him which helds that both system were of "the most fundamental difference,"[5] has been rejected by Tony Huff as unsubstantiated.[6]
The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and it has also been subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring prospective lecturers to have completed a "research doctorate" became widespread. Additionally, universities' shifts to "research oriented" education increased the importance of the doctorate. Today such a doctorate is generally a prerequisite for pursuing an academic career, although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes an academic by profession. Many universities also award "honorary doctorates" to individuals who have been deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.
Although the research doctorate is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention.
The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now less common in some countries, and are often awarded honoris causa. The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and involves either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The "habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the research doctorate, and can be necessary for a Privatdozent (in Germany) or professor position.
A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree doctor of science (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries.
Since the Middle Ages, there has been considerable evolution and proliferation in the number and types of doctorates awarded by universities throughout the world, and practices vary from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles one to be addressed as "doctor," usage of the title varies widely, depending on the type of doctorate earned and the doctor's occupation.
Broadly speaking, doctorates may be loosely classified into the following categories:
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of academic research that is (at least in principle) publishable in a peer-refereed academic journal. In many countries, including the United States, earning a research doctorate also requires successful completion of a regimen of coursework beyond the masters level. The best-known degree of this type, in the Anglophone world, is that of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D., or sometimes D.Phil) awarded in many countries throughout the world. Others include the degree of Doctor of Education, various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of Engineering[7] (also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK Engineering Doctorate[8] and the German Engineering Doctorate Doktor-Ingenieur and the German degree of Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr.rer.nat.). The Doctor of Theology, often stylized Th.D., is also a research doctorate, in theology, awarded by universities such as Harvard Divinity School and the University of Toronto among many others. Likewise, the Doctor of Sacred Theology is also a research doctorate in theology, but particular to Catholic Pontifical Universities and Faculties.
Criteria for award of research doctorates vary somewhat throughout the world, but typically requires the submission of a substantial body of original research undertaken by the candidate. This may take the form of a single thesis or dissertation, or possibly a portfolio of shorter project reports, and will usually be assessed by a small committee of examiners appointed by the university, and often an oral examination of some kind. In some countries (such as the US) there may also be a formal taught component, typically consisting of graduate-level courses in the subject in question, as well as training in research methodology.
The minimum time required to complete a research doctorate varies by country, and may be as short as three years (excluding undergraduate study), although it is not uncommon for a candidate to take up to ten years to complete.
In UK an equivalent formation to doctorate is the QCF 8.[9]
In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and some Scandinavian nations, or former USSR and other Eastern Bloc countries, there is a higher tier of research doctorates, awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Sciences (DSc/ScD) and Doctor of Letters (DLitt/LittD) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Denmark and Norway, including Dr. Theol. (Theology), Dr. Jur. (Law), Dr. Med. (Medicine) and, after Denmark and Norway introduced the Ph.D. at a lower level, Dr. Phil(os).. The Danish and Norwegian titles should not be confused with German doctorates.
The French, German and Polish habilitation (a formal professorial qualification with thesis and exam) is commonly regarded as belonging to this category. However, in some German states, the Habilitation is not an academic degree, but rather a professorial certification ("facultas docendi") that the person concerned holds all the qualifications needed to teach independently at a German university. In other German states, the "Habilitand" is awarded a formal "Dr. habil." degree. In some cases where such degree is awarded, the regarding person may add "habil." to his or her research doctorate such as "Dr. phil. habil." or "Dr. rer. nat. habil." The French academical system used to have a higher doctorate, called "State doctorate" (doctorat d'État) but it was supersed by the habilitation in 1984.
In Sweden, a title roughly corresponding to the Habilitation is Docent. This was also commonly used in Poland but as of 2005 was changed to a formal "Dr hab." (doktor habilitowany) degree. See below (Poland section) for more details.
Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.
Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where scholarly research is closely aligned with a particular profession, such as law, medicine, or psychology. Examples include the US and Canadian degrees of Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.), Medicinae Doctor (M.D.), Doctor of Physical Therapy (D.P.T.), Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.), Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D), Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.), Doctor of Nursing Practice (D.N.P.), Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.), Juris Doctor (J.D.) and Doctor of Optometry (O.D.), and the Czech and Slovak degrees of Doctor of Medicine (MUDr. – Medicinae Universae Doctor) and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (MVDr. – Medicinae Vetenariae Doctor). As well the other "small doctorates" in Czech Republic and Slovak Republic like Doctor of Philosophy (PhDr. - Philosopfhiae Doctor), Doctor of Science (RNDr. - Rerum Naturalium Doctor), Doctor of Law (JUDr. - Juris Utriusque Doctor), Doctor of Theology (ThDr. -Theologiae Doctor) and Licenciate in Theology (ThLic. - Theologiae Licentiatus) can be cold professional doctorates.
Professional doctorates originated in the United States, with the introduction of the MD at Columbia University in 1767,[10] or almost 100 years before a research doctorate (that is, a PhD) was awarded in that country, at Yale in 1861.[11] The JD was introduced in 1870, just a few years after the PhD.[12]
The term Professional Doctorate is used to refer to research doctorates with a focus on applied research, or research as used for professional purposes.[13] Among others, these include the degrees of Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Strategic Leadership (DSL) Doctor of Education (Ed.D), Doctor of Public Administration (DPA), Doctor of Biblical Studies (D.B.S.), Doctor of Law and Policy (Lp.D), Doctor of Occupational Therapy (O.T.D.), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT),[14] Doctor of Professional Studies (DPS or DProf), Doctor of the Built Environment (DBEnv)[15] and some others in various specified professional fields.
In Australia, the term is on occasion applied to the SJD,[16][17][18] and on other occasions that degree is also categorized as a research degree.[19][20]
When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa (i.e., "for the sake of the honor"), the university waiving the usual formal requirements for bestowal of the degree.[21][22] Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example, Cornell University,[23] the University of Virginia,[24], the California Institute of Technology, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[25]
An extreme rarity among degrees are the Professorial degrees.
In modern times, the status of Professor is awarded as a recognition of sustained academic excellence, equivalent in standing to an honorary doctorate, but this is not a degree per se. However, in past times, Professor was sometimes awarded as a degree.
One example of this is the degree of Sacrae Theologiae Professor (STP), which was awarded by the Pontifical University. This degree is now titled Sacrae Theologiae Doctor (STD) in keeping with usual modern practices.
In Argentina the doctorate (doctorado)[26] is the highest academic degree. The intention is that candidates produce true and original contributions in a specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.[27] The doctoral candidate's work is presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director, and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. The Committee is composed of examiners external to the program, and at least one examiner external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor is conferred after a successful defense of the candidate’s dissertation.[28] Currently, there are approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees.[27] Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation,[29] which is a decentralized agency in Argentina’s Ministry of Education, Science and Technology.[30]
In Denmark there are four levels of degrees: 1) a three-years Bachelor's Degree (e.g. Bachelor of Arts = B.A.); 2) a two-years Candidate's Degree (e.g. candidatus/candidata magisterii = cand.mag.), respectively a three-years extended research graduation, leading to the Magister's Degree (e.g. magister/magistra artium = mag.art.), the latter of which has recently been phased out in order to meet the international standards of the Bologna Process – both the cand.mag. and the mag.art. are generally compared to a Master's Degree (MA); 3) a Ph.D. Degree (ph.d.), which replaced the licentiate in 1988, and finally; 4) a Doctors Degree (fx doctor philosophiae = dr.phil.), which is the higher doctorate.
For the Ph.D., the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally at a formal disputation. In the disputation, the candidate defends his or her thesis against three official opponents as well as opponents from the auditorium (ex auditorio).
For the higher doctorate, the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally at a formal disputation. In this disputation, the candidate (called præces) defends his thesis against two official opponents as well as opponents from the auditorium (ex auditorio).
In the Finnish education system, the requirement for the entrance into the doctoral studies is a Master's degree or equivalent qualification. All universities have the right to award doctorates in their assigned fields.[31] The ammattikorkeakoulu institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of applied sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees. The aim of the studies for the doctoral degree is threefold:
The way to show that these general requirements have been met is also threefold:
In Finland, the entrance into the graduate studies is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict numerus clausus is applied. Usually, a prospective graduate student discusses his plans with a professor of his choice. If the professor wishes to accept the student, the student applies the faculty for a study place. Nonetheless, in some cases, the professor may recruit the student to his group after a successful completion of a master's thesis, for instance.[32] In any case, a formal graduate study place does not guarantee funding. The student must obtain funding either by working in a research unit or through scholarships handed out by private foundations. Typically, it is easier to obtain funding for graduate studies in natural and engineering sciences, while graduate studies in letters are more difficult to finance. Sometimes, it may be possible to combine normal work and research activity.[33]
Prior to introduction of Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1800 hours) of formal coursework of doctoral students. The general requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision on the scale of coursework needed to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties and even to individual professors. In fields of Engineering and Science, the required amount of coursework varies between 60 and 70 ECTS.
The time for the completion of graduate studies varies, as there are no fixed time limits written into the law or to most university regulations. It is possible to graduate even in three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are by no means uncommon. In any case, the study ends with the completion of a dissertation, which must make a substantial contribution to the field by presenting new scientific or scholarly knowledge. The dissertation can either be a monograph or it can be edited from a collection of 3 to 7 journal articles, including an introduction tying together the individual parts. If a student is unable or unwilling to write a dissertation, he may qualify for licentiate degree of his field by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually worth of one year of research.
After the dissertation is ready, it is submitted to the faculty, which names two pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside of the university. These pre-examiners must be noted experts of the field. Their acceptance of the work is necessary for the permission to defend the work. During the pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and if necessary, requirements to modify it.[34] After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for the permission to print the thesis. Simultaneously with the printing permission, the faculty names the opponent for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert of the field, with at least a doctoral degree. In all Finnish universities, an archaic tradition requires that the printed dissertation must hang on a chord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days after the printing permission has been given in order for the defence of the dissertation to be possible.[35]
The doctoral dissertation takes place in public, usually in a university auditorium, with the opponent and the candidate conducting a very formal debate, usually wearing white tie, under the supervision of the thesis supervisor. It is customary for the family, friends, colleagues and the members of the research community to attend the defence proceedings. After a formal entrance, the candidate begins the proceeding by a circa 20-minute popular lecture (lectio praecursoria), which is meant to introduce the laymen present to the topic of the thesis. After this, the opponent gives a short talk on the topic of the defence, after which the pair critically discusses the dissertation. The proceedings take two, maybe three hours. At the end of the proceeding, the opponent presents his final statement on the work, and reveals whether he/she will recommend that the faculty accept it. After the opponent has finished, any member of the public has an opportunity to raise questions on the dissertation, although such opponents extraordinary are rare. Immediately after the defence, the supervisor, the opponent and the passed candidate drink coffee with the public. Usually, the attendees of the defence are handed out the printed dissertation and leave with it.[36] In the evening, the passed candidate is obligated to host a dinner (Finnish: karonkka) in the honour of the opponent. Usually, the candidate invites his family and colleagues and collaborators.[37]
In France, the doctorate (doctorat) is always a research-only degree. It is a national degree and its requirements are fixed by an official text of the minister of higher education and research. Except for a very small number of private institutions, only public institutions of higher education and research can award the doctorate. It can be awarded in any field of study. The master's degree is a prerequisite for pursuing a doctoral program. The official normal duration of the doctoral work is three years. The redaction of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctorate's work. While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 150 pages, and often substantially more. There are ~15000 new matriculations for the doctoral program every year and ~10000 doctorates awarded.[38]
Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship, the most well known being the allocation de recherche du ministère de l'enseignement supérieur et de la recherche (4000 granted every years, gross salary of 18,369 euros in February 2007).
During the preparation of the doctorate, the candidate has had, since 2002, to follow a limited number of courses, but there is no written examination for the doctorate. The candidate has to write an extensive thesis which is read by two external reviewers designated by the head of the institution. According to the reports of the reviewer, the head of the institution decides whether the candidate can defend his thesis or not. The members of the jury are designated by the head of the institution and must be composed of external and internal academics. The supervisor of the candidate is generally a member of the jury, as well as the reviewers of the thesis. The maximum number of members in the jury is 8. The defense lasts generally 45 minutes in scientific fields and are followed by 1h – 2h30 of questions from the jury or other doctors present in the assistance. Defense and questions are public. At the end of the series of questions, the jury deliberates in private for 20–30 min and comes back to declare the candidate admitted or "postponed". "Postponement" is very rare. The admission of the candidate is generally followed by a distinction: "honourable", which is not highly considered, "very honourable", which is the usual distinction, and "very honourable with the congratulation of the jury" (Très honorable avec félicitations). Because there exist no national criteria for the award of this last distinction, many institutions have decided not to award it. New regulations concerning this distinction were set in 2006. Many institutions have decided not to award any distinction, as it is now permitted by the law.
Confusingly the title of doctor (docteur) is used only by the medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold not a doctorate but a doctor's state diploma (diplôme d'État de docteur), which is a first-degree and professional doctorate obtained after at least 9 years of studies. As they do not pursue research studies, they are not awarded a doctorate.
Before 1984 three research doctorates existed : the state doctorate (doctorat d'État, the old doctorate introduced in 1808), the third cycle doctorate (doctorat de troisième cycle), created in 1954 and shorter than the state doctorate, and the diploma of doctor-engineer (diplôme de docteur-ingénieur), created in 1923, for technical research. Since 1984, there is only one type of doctoral degree, simply called "doctorate" (Doctorat). A special diploma has been created called the "accreditation to supervise research" (habilitation à diriger des recherches), which is a professional qualification to supervise doctoral work. (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older state doctorate, and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain tenure in other systems.) Before only professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's work.[39] Now the habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university (Professeur des Universités) and to the title of Research Director (Directeur de recherche) in national public research agency such as CNRS or INRA.
In Germany, a doctorate is usually a research doctorate. Its duration depends strongly on the field in which it is taken. While a doctorate in medicine may take less than a full-time year to complete, it takes between three and six years in engineering. In Germany, most doctorates are awarded with specific designations for the field of research instead of a general "PhD" for all fields, the most important ones being: Dr. rer. nat. (Doctorate in Natural Sciences, i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Maths, Psychology often also Computer Science and Information Technology), Dr. phil. (Doctorate of philosophy, i.e. the humanities like Philosophy, philology, History, and social sciences like sociology or Psychology), Dr. iur. (Doctorate in Law), Dr. rer. oec. (Doctorate in Economics), Dr. rer. pol. (Doctor Rerum Politicarum, aka Doctorate in Political Science), Dr. med. (Doctorate in Medicine), Dr.-Ing. (Doctorate in Engineering). There are over fifty such specific designations, many of which are highly specialized and rarely awarded. The degree can be written in front of the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbreviations "Dr." and "Dr.-Ing." are common) and accompanies the person's name (unlike in German-speaking Switzerland, where some doctoral programs issue a PhD[40]). Although the "Dr." does not become part of a person's name one can demand naming the title in official documents. However, naming the title even in these documents is not mandatory. The "Dr." (but not the specification of the field) is commonly used to address someone with this title for instance in formal letters. If someone holds other titles, as in "Prof. (Professor) Dr. Dr.-Ing. [Surname]", it is common to use only the highest title in formal letters, as in "Prof. [Surname]".
Upon the completion of the habilitation thesis (Habilitationsschrift) a different type of a doctorate (Dr. habil. or only: habil.) is awarded. This doctorate is known as the Habilitation. It is not considered a formal degree but an additional academic qualification. It qualifies the owner to teach at (German) universities ("facultas docendi"), plus the holder of the "habil." can apply for the authorization to teach a certain subject ("venia legendi"). This has been the traditional prerequisite for attaining the title Privatdozent (PD) and employment as a Professor at universities. With the introduction of Juniorprofessoren – around 2005 in Germany – as an alternative track towards becoming a professor at universities (with tenure), this has changed partially, and the Habilitation is no longer the only career track at universities.
In India doctorate level degrees are offered by the universities or institutions of national level importance deemed to be universities. Entry requirements for doctorate degrees by most of the universities include good academic background at masters level(post graduate degree). Some universities also consider undergraduate degrees in professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law for entrance to doctorate level degrees. Entrance examinations are held for almost all the universities for admission to doctoral level degrees. The duration of the coursework and thesis for award of the degree is (In most north Indian universities the minimum required time to submit your theses after registration is 2 academic years and in most of the universities in south India its 3 years after PhD registration .
. The most commonly awarded doctoral level degree is Ph.D. There are some other doctoral level degrees such as DBA ( Doctorate of Business Administration), DIT ( Doctorate of Information Technology), LLD (Doctorate in Laws) and D.Sc (Doctorate in Science). Some of the institutions of the national level importance such as Indian Institute of Management[41] call their doctoral level programmes as fellow programme. Recently Pharmacy Council of India has permitted few colleges for Pharm D course (Doctorate in Pharmacy).
According to the European Higher Education Area Academic Degrees stated by the Bologna Process and to the Ministero dell'Educazione Pubblica (MIUR), Italy uses the three levels degree system. The first level degree, called "laurea triennale" (Bachelor's degree) is obtained after three years of study and a short thesis on a specific subject. The second level degree, called "laurea magistrale" (Master's degree) is obtained after two additional years of study, specializing in a particular branch of the chosen subject (e.g. particle physics, nuclear engineering, etc.). This degree requires a more complex thesis work, usually involving some academic research or an internship in a private company. The final degree is called "dottorato di ricerca" (Ph.D.) and is obtained after three years of academic research on the subject and a thesis.
Alternatively, after obtaining the laurea triennale or the laurea magistrale one can attend a "Master" (first-level Master after the laurea triennale; second-level Master after the laurea magistrale) of one or two years, offered by universities and private organisations with a variety of subjects, lengths and costs and usually including a final internship in a private company. An Italian "Master" is not to be confused with a Master degree; it is intended to be more focused on professional training and practical experience than standard degrees.
The title for Bachelor Graduate students is, regardless from the field of study, Dottore/Dottoressa (abbrev. Dott./Dott.ssa, sometimes incorrectly abbreviated as Dr., meaning Doctor), not to be confused with the title for the PhD level graduate, which instead is Dottore/Dottoressa di Ricerca. A laurea magistrale grants instead the title of Dottore/Dottoressa magistrale. Graduates from the fields of Education, Art and Music are also called Dr. Prof. (or simply Professore) or Maestro. On the other side, many professional titles like ingegnere (engineer) are not automatically awarded upon the graduation on the corresponding field of study but instead are given upon passing a post graduation examination (esame di stato), and the subsequent registration in the relative professional association.
Until the 1990s, most doctorates in the natural sciences and engineering in Japan were earned by industrial researchers in Japanese companies. These degrees are awarded by the employees' former university, usually after many years of research in industrial laboratories. No matriculation is necessary, only submission of a dissertation with some articles published in well-known journals . This program, called Ronbun Hakase (論文博士), represented the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities. With the expansion of university-based doctoral programs called Katei Hakase (課程博士), however, the proportion of these degrees earned is decreasing. By 1994, more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university laboratories (53%) than industrial research laboratories (47%).[42] Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) provides tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa to earn their PhD degrees through this route. The program is called JSPS RONPAKU.[43]
The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor. In Japan the J.D. is known as Homu Hakushi (法務博士) and has replaced the bachelor of law as the first entry law degree.[44] The program generally lasts three years. This curriculum is professionally oriented,[45] but unlike in the United States the program does not provide the education sufficient for a license, as all candidates for a license must attend the Legal Training and Research Institute.[46]
The traditional academic system of The Netherlands provides four basic academic diplomas and degrees: propaedeuse, candidate, doctorandus (drs.) and doctor (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of University, the student is awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). The kandidaat candidate degree, which was all but abolished by 1989, used to be attained after four or five years of academic study, after which the student was allowed to begin work on his doctorandus thesis. The successful completion of this thesis allows one to use the doctorandus title, attainment of which means one's initial studies are finished. In addition to these 'general' degrees, a number of specific titles for certain subjects are available, each of which is equivalent to the doctorandus degree: for law: meester ('master') (mr.), and for engineering: ingenieur ('engineer')(ir.).In the last few years, the Dutch have incorporated the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees into their own. The old candidate's degree has been revived as bachelor's degree, the doctorandus' by the master's degree.
Those who choose to can enroll in a doctorate system after achieving a masters degree (or equivalent) recognised by the Dutch government. The most common way is to be hired as promovendus (research assistant with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive research, and write a doctoral dissertation (this course is normally four years, although the average duration to completions is about 5.5 years). It is also possible to conduct research without the research assistant status, for example through a business sponsored research laboratory, or in spare time. Regardless of the way, every thesis has to be supported by a promotor (full university professor who has the role of principal advisor) before it can be submitted. The written thesis is subjected to review by a committee of experts in the relevant academic field; who either approve or do not approve the submitted thesis. Failures at this stage are rare as the supervisors will hold back submission (causing delay beyond the 4 years) rather than allow a substandard thesis to be submitted. The supervisors, and especially the promotor lose face with her/his colleagues allowing a substandard thesis to be submitted; thus gaining supervisor approval is in practice the more demanding requirement. After approval by the reviewers, the candidate will print typically 100-300 copies of the thesis and send that to colleagues, friends and family with an invitation to the public defense. The doctoral degree is awarded in a formal, public, defense session (failure during this session is in theory possible but in practice this never happens). The defense last exactly the assigned time slote (45 minutes or 1 hour exactly depending on the University) after which the defense is stopped by the pedel who interrupts ongoing questioning by entering the room and announcing that the time is past in Latin (Hora Est). At this stage the candidate is allowed to stop the defense even midsentence, although in practice a short one sentence wrap up is usually given. If one of the examiners is still phrasing a question, no answer will be given.
The doctor title is the highest academic degree one can attain in the Netherlands. There is only one title "doctor", which is equivalent to PhD. However, the three Dutch universities of technology (Eindhoven University of Technology, Technical University Delft, and University of Twente) do award a Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng).
In the Netherlands, although the title doctor (dr.) is informally called PhD, there is no such thing as a PhD degree; there is the title doctor (dr.) instead of PhD. Seeing that all other university titles (BSc/BBa/LL.B/BA M.Sc/MBA/LL.M/MA) are protected by law but PhD is not it follows that any person can call himself PhD in the Netherlands without having obtained that title. Calling oneself "Doctor" without having a doctorate is fraud though. For people who obtained a degree in a foreign country to be allowed to use the Dutch title drs. mr. ir. or dr. a request has to be made at the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs[47] though according to the opportunity principle there is little incentive to punish such fraud. Dutch doctors may use the letter D behind their name instead of the shortcut dr. before their name.[48]
Those who have multiple doctor (dr.) titles may use dr.mult. before their own name.[48] Those who have received honoris causa doctorates may use dr.h.c. before their own name.[48]
In Flanders (the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium) the system is very similar, except the doctorandus title was only awarded to those who actually started their doctoral work. Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a PhD student. The licentiaat (licencee) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the kandidaat to bachelor and licentiaat to master.
Research Degrees are PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) awarded after extensive research work. To get admission in PhD you must be admitted to the MPhil program for which you need to pass NTS or GRE and should have good grades throughout your career. Exemption from MPhil is possible if you have MS from a reputable University.
Professional Degree / Terminal Degree is awarded in Pharmacy i.e. Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD, a five (5) year course of study) which requires accreditation of the School / Faculty of Pharmacy by Pakistan Pharmacy Council. It is the only Professional Degree in Pharmacy awarded in Pakistan replacing Bachelor of Pharmacy degree ( a four (4) year course of study.
The Polish system is similar to the one adopted in Germany, with Ph.D. as a first level doctorate and habilitation (habilitacja) as second. The award of the title of doktor (Ph.D.) is usually preceded by 4–5 years of doctoral study (a post-graduate study offered at most universities, during which candidate is employed by this university and is usually obligated to teach some classes) and a doctoral exam. Doctoral studies usually consist of seminars, lectures, research and teaching. In order to become a doktor habilitowany (i.e. to be awarded a second level doctorate) a candidate has to publish a dissertation that is the culmination of several years of deep field studies, as well as have a recognized research record. While, according to current Polish law, candidates without habilitation are theoretically eligible to become professors, in practice it is extremely rare. Since 1993 only Master-degree holders are allowed to become a doctor, while prior to that time it was possible (but rare) to gain doctorate without Master studies (for example Stefan Banach).
First, a prospective doctor must have published some works (articles, books). To become a doctor one needs to go through the process called doctoral proceedings (przewód doktorski). This proceedings include the writing of a dissertation (varying in length), which then must be accepted by a panel of professors during a so-called defence of the dissertation (obrona pracy doktorskiej). There are several other requirements, like passing an exam in a foreign language and subject related to the dissertation title.
The title of a first level doctor is abbreviated as dr (without a full stop) before the surname of a person, e.g. dr Kowalski and a second level dr hab.. After becoming a doctor mgr is omitted, e.g. mgr → dr, mgr inż. → dr inż..
Doktor is also a common form of addressing a physician, but that does not indicate that the person actually holds a doctoral degree. Doctors of medicine have the abbreviation dr n. med. (doctor of medical science) before or after their surname.
Other specific doctoral titles include dr inż. (doctor of engineering) and dr n. farm (doctor of pharmaceutical science). Dr n.hum. means doctor of humanities (incl. psychology and sociology), but is rarely used to differentiate from doctors of other fields. All other doctorates have no indications of their field.
All doctoral programs are of research nature. Usually 3 or 4 years of study are required, mostly as a period of research. The student must write his (or her) thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to Science. If approved by his/her "supervisor", the study will be presented to a panel of distinguished scholars. If approved, he or she will receive the doctorate.
In Portugal and in the African Countries of Portuguese Official Language it is common to use the title "Dr." (supposedly the abbreviation of "Doutor") in reference to people with "Licenciatura" or "Mestrado" degrees. Thus "Doutor" is commonly used in the extended form to denote someone with a doctorate. "Professor Doutor" is used with professional career teaching doctorates, usually university professors).
Before the Bologna Process reform, a "Licenciatura" was something between a Bachelor ("Bacharelato" in Portugal) and it represented 4 to 6 years of graduate studies.
After the Bologna Process reform in Portugal, the new "Licenciatura" degree is equivalent to the old "Bacharelato" (Bachelor with 3 or 4 years). There are also the "Mestrado" (Master degree) and the "Mestrado Integrado" (integrated Bachelor and Master degree with 5 or 6 years, required for access to some professional fields). Some professionals have, however, different titles. For example: "Eng." (Engenheiro, such as the Master of Engineering), "Arq." (Arquitecto, Architect). The term "Dr." in Portugal is used for people from other professional fields.
Many post-Soviet countries, including Russian Federation, have a two-stage research degree obtaining path, generally similar to the doctorate system in Europe. The first stage is named "Kandidat(Кандидат наук) of <...> Sciences" (literal translation means "Candidate of Sciences",) (for instance, Kandidat of Medical Sciences, of Chemical Sciences, of Philological Sciences, and so on). The Kandidat of Sciences degree is usually recognised as an equivalent of Philosophy Doctor (Ph.D.) degree and requires at least (and typically more than) three, four or five years of post-graduate research which is finished by defence of Dissertation or rarely - thesis. Additionally, a seeker of the degree has to pass three examinations (a so-called "Kandidate's minimum"): in his/her special field, in a foreign language, and in the history and philosophy of science. After additional certification by the corresponding experts, the Kandidat degree may be recognized internationally as an equivalent of Ph.D. (An unconditional Ph.D. equivalence has been recognized before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the additional certification in many countries has become required after the steep increase flow of post-Soviet emigration.) The second stage, Doktor nauk, "Doctor of <...> Sciences". It requires many years of research experience and writing of a second dissertation. The degrees of Kandidat and Doktor of Sciences are only awarded by the special governmental agency (Higher Attestation Commission); a university or a scientific institute where the thesis was defended can only recommend to award a seeker the sought degree. In practice, however, HAC only rarely rejects such recommendations, and its approval is almost automatic.
Doctor degrees are regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 778/1998),[49] Real Decreto (in Spanish). They are granted by the University on behalf of the King, and its Diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO.[50] According to the National Institute of Statistics (INE), less than 5% of M.Sc. degree holders are admitted to Ph.D. programs.
All doctoral programs are of research nature. A minimum of 5 years of study are required, divided into 2 stages:
A Doctor degree is required in order to apply to a teaching position at the University.[51]
The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only Ph.D. holders, Grandees and Dukes can take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King.[52]
Complutense University was the sole university in Spain authorized to confer the Doctor degree on any scholar. This law remained in effect until 1954, when the authorization was extended to the University of Salamanca in commemoration of its septecentenary. This made the degree of Doctor all the more unique and prestigious in social circles. In 1970, the right was extended to all Spanish universities, ending the monopoly of Complutense University over this distinction.[53]
All Doctorate Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994").[54]
All doctorates (except for those awarded honoris causa) granted by British universities are research doctorates in the sense described above, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of a thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university. The Quality Assurance Agency (for England, Wales and Northern Ireland but not Scotland) states:
Doctorates are awarded to students who have demonstrated:
- the creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original research or other advanced scholarship, of a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront of the discipline, and merit publication;
- a systematic acquisition and understanding of a substantial body of knowledge which is at the forefront of an academic discipline or area of professional practice;
- the general ability to conceptualise, design and implement a project for the generation of new knowledge, applications or understanding at the forefront of the discipline, and to adjust the project design in the light of unforeseen problems;
- a detailed understanding of applicable techniques for research and advanced academic enquiry.
— Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland,[55] Annex 1
Even the relatively new 'vocational doctorates' such as the EngD, EdD, DSocSci, DCrimJ and DClinPsych require the submission of a body of original research of a similar length to a PhD thesis.[13] In the case of the EngD, however, this might be in the form of a portfolio of technical reports on different research projects undertaken by the candidate as opposed to a single, long monographical thesis. Another important difference is that traditional PhD programs are mostly academic-oriented, whereas, in an EngD program, the candidate typically works full-time for an industrial sponsor on application-oriented topics of direct interest to the partner company and is jointly supervised by university faculty members and company employees.
The PhD itself is a comparatively recent introduction to the UK, dating from 1917. It was originally introduced in order to provide a similar level of graduate research training as was available in several other countries, notably Germany and the USA. Previously, the only doctorates available were the higher doctorates, awarded in recognition of an illustrious research career.
The universities of Oxford, Sussex and Buckingham denote the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with the postnominal initials DPhil. The University of York also did this for some years, switching to the more conventional PhD quite recently.
In UK the Doctorate is a qualification awarded at NVQ level 5 or QCF level 8 in the national qualifications framework. http://www.ofqual.gov.uk/qualification-and-assessment-framework/89-articles/250-explaining-the-national-qualifications-framework
Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate will submit a collection of work which has been previously published in a peer-refereed context and pay an examination fee. The university then assembles a committee of academics both internal and external who review the work submitted and decide on whether the candidate deserves the doctorate based on the submission.
Most universities restrict candidacy to graduates or academic staff of several years' standing. The most common doctorates of this type are those in Divinity (DD), Laws (LLD), Civil Law (DCL), Music (DMus or MusD), Letters (DLitt or LittD) and Science (DSc or ScD). Note, however, that the doctorate in medicine (MD or DMed) in most British universities is a research doctorate by thesis, and is shorter than a PhD (usually 2 years (pro rata for full time) rather than 3 for a PhD), and is awarded by a Faculty of Medicine. In order to be eligible to apply for an MD degree in the UK one must already hold a entry level medical degree (MBBS, MBChB, BMed, or an American MD). In the University of London, the consequent gap in higher doctorates is filled with the degree of DSc(Med), which ranks with the LLD, DMus, etc.
Of these, the DD historically ranked highest, theology being the senior faculty in the mediaeval universities. The degree of Doctor of Canon Law was next in the order of precedence, but (except for a brief revival during the reign of Mary Tudor) did not survive the Protestant reformation,[56] a consequence of the fact that the teaching of canon law at Cambridge and Oxford was forbidden by Henry VIII, founder of the Church of England. The DMus was, historically, in an anomalous situation, since a candidate was not required to be a member of Convocation (that is, to be a Master of Arts). The DLitt and DSc are relatively recent innovations, dating from the latter part of the 19th century.
Most British universities award degrees honoris causa in order to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the achievements of the candidate. However, some universities, in order to differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, have introduced the degree of Doctor of the University (DUniv) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.
The most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). This degree was first awarded in the U.S. at the 1861 Yale University commencement.[11] The University of Pennsylvania followed shortly thereafter in 1871,[57] while Cornell (1872),[58] Harvard (1873),[59] and Princeton (1879)[60] also followed suit. Unlike the introduction of the professional doctorate M.D., there was considerable controversy and opposition over the introduction of the Ph.D. into the U.S. educational system, even through the 1950s, as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign educational system (that of Germany), which corrupted a system based on the Oxbridge model of England.[61]
The requirements for obtaining Ph.D.s and other research doctorates in the U.S. typically entail successful completion of pertinent classes, passing of a comprehensive examination, and defense of a dissertation.[62]
The mean number of years to completion of doctoral degrees for all fields in the US is seven.[7] Students are often discouraged from taking unnecessarily long to graduate by having their financial support (stipends, research funds, etc.) relinquished and/or by being required to re-take comprehensive exams. Furthermore, doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master's degree, but many programs will now accept students immediately following their undergraduate studies.[63][64] Many programs simply gauge the potential of a student applying to their program and will give them a master's degree upon completion of the necessary Ph.D course work. When so admitted, the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the masters degree even though the student does not officially hold a masters degree. Once the person has finished Ph.D qualifying exams he/she is considered a Ph.D candidate, and may begin work on his/her dissertation.
The International Affairs Office of the U.S. Department of Education lists over 20 frequently awarded research doctorate degree titles accepted by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as representing degrees equivalent in research content to the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree.[65] They are:
Doctor of Arts (D.A./D. Arts), Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.), Doctor of Church Music (D.C.M.), Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D./D.C.L.), Doctor of Design (D.Des.), Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng./D.E.Sc./D.E.S.), Doctor of Fine Arts (D.F.A.), Doctor of Health Science (D.H.Sc.), Doctor of Hebrew Letters (D.H.L.), Doctor of Industrial Technology (D.I.T.), Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D./S.J.D.), Doctor of Management (D.M.), Doctor of Music (D.M.), Doctor of Musical/Music Arts (D.M.A./A.Mus.D./D.Mus.A.), Doctor of Music Education (D.M.E.), Doctor of Modern Languages (D.M.L.), Doctor of Nursing Science (D.N.Sc.), Doctor of Occupational Therapy (O.T.D.) Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Doctor of Public Administration (D.P.A.), Doctor of Physical Education (D.P.E.), Doctor of Public Health (Dr.P.H.), Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D.), Doctor of Biblical Studies (D.B.S.), Doctor of Science (D.Sc./Sc.D.), Doctor of Social Work (D.S.W.), and Doctor of Theology (Th.D.).
In the United States numerous fields of study have professional doctorates, such as law, education, medicine, teaching, naturopathic medicine, osteopathic medicine, dentistry, advanced practice registered nurse, optometry, chiropractic, pharmacy, physical therapy, psychology, health science, public health and many others that usually require such degrees for licensure. Some of these degrees are also termed "first professional degrees," since they are also the first degree in their field.
Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century during a movement to improve the training of professionals by raising the requirements for entry and completion of the degree necessary to enter the profession.[66] These first professional degrees were created to help strengthen professional training programs. The first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M.D. in 1767 by Columbia University[67] which was nearly one hundred years before the first Ph.D. was awarded in the U.S. in 1861.[68] The Juris Doctor (J.D.) was subsequently established by Harvard University for the same reasons that the M.D. was established.[69] A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the Terminal/Professional degree in Pharmacy replacing BS in Pharmacy. It is the only Professional Pharmacy Degree awarded in the US and the Pharmacy School needs accreditation of American Council on Pharmacy Education (ACPE). Pharmacy programs vary in length between 4–6 years depending if a matriculating student has earned a BS/BA or not.
Recently there has been a trend for introducing professional doctorates in other fields as well, including the Doctor of Audiology in 2007. Advanced Practice Registered Nurses are expected to completely transition to the Doctor of Nursing Practice by 2015 and physical therapy to the Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020.
| Profession | Professional doctorate in the United States | First awarded |
|---|---|---|
| Allopathic Physician | Medicinae Doctor and Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) | 1767[67] |
| Osteopathic Physician | Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) | 1892 |
| Chiropractor | Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.) | |
| Dentist | Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S) and Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.) | |
| Occupational Therapy | Doctor of Occupational Therapy (O.T.D.) | |
| Social Work | Doctor of Social Work (D.S.W.) | |
| Physical Therapy | Doctor of Physical Therapy (D.P.T) | |
| Podiatrist | Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.) | |
| Pharmacist | Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD),(PD),(DrPh)and(DPh) | |
| Government | Doctor of Public Administration (D.P.A.) | |
| Veterinarian | Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.) and Veterinariae Medicinae Doctoris (V.M.D.) | |
| Advanced Practice Registered Nurse | Doctor of Nursing Practice or Doctor of Nurse Anesthesia Practice (DNP or DNAP) | 2005 |
| Optometrist | Doctor of Optometry (O.D.) | |
| Audiologist | Doctor of Audiology (Au.D.) | 1996 |
| Lawyer | Juris Doctor or Doctor of Law or Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.) | 1870 |
| Physician Assistant | Doctor of Science Physician Assistant (DScPA) | |
| Health Science | Doctor of Health Science (D.H.Sc.) | |
| Public Health | Doctor of Public Health (Dr.PH.) | |
| Minister/Clergy | Doctor of Ministry (D.Min.), Doctor of Practical Theology (D.P.T. or D.Th.P.) or Doctor of Biblical Studies (D.B.S) | |
| Psychologist | Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) | |
| Law and Policy | Doctor of Law and Policy (L.P.D.) | [70] |
| College Teaching | Doctor of Arts (D.Arts/D.A.) | |
| Management | Doctor of Management (D.Mgt.) | |
| Management | Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership (DM) | |
| Management | Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership/Information Systems Technology (DM/IST) |
Perhaps the most fundamental difference between the two systems is embodied in their systems of certification; namely, in medieval Europe, the licentia docendi, or license to teach; in medieval Islam, the ijaza, or authorization.
It remains the case that no equivalent of the bachelor's degree, the licentia docendi, or higher degrees ever emerged in the medieval or early modern Islamic madrasas.
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